Theorem cubic 23854

Description: The cubic equation, which gives the roots of an arbitrary (nondegenerate) cubic function. Use rextp 4019 to convert the existential quantifier to a triple disjunction. This is Metamath 100 proof #37. (Contributed by Mario Carneiro, 26-Apr-2015.)

Hypotheses

Ref	Expression
cubic.r	|- R = { 1 , ( ( -u 1 + ( _i x. ( sqr ` 3 ) ) ) / 2 ) , ( ( -u 1 - ( _i x. ( sqr ` 3 ) ) ) / 2 ) }
cubic.a	|- ( ph -> A e. CC )
cubic.z	|- ( ph -> A =/= 0 )
cubic.b	|- ( ph -> B e. CC )
cubic.c	|- ( ph -> C e. CC )
cubic.d	|- ( ph -> D e. CC )
cubic.x	|- ( ph -> X e. CC )
cubic.t	|- ( ph -> T = ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) )
cubic.g	|- ( ph -> G = ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) )
cubic.m	|- ( ph -> M = ( ( B ^ 2 ) - ( 3 x. ( A x. C ) ) ) )
cubic.n	|- ( ph -> N = ( ( ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) - ( ( 9 x. A ) x. ( B x. C ) ) ) + (; 2 7 x. ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) ) ) )
cubic.0	|- ( ph -> M =/= 0 )

Assertion

Ref	Expression
cubic	|- ( ph -> ( ( ( ( A x. ( X ^ 3 ) ) + ( B x. ( X ^ 2 ) ) ) + ( ( C x. X ) + D ) ) = 0 <-> E. r e. R X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) )

Distinct variable groups:   A, r   B, r   M, r   N, r   ph, r   T, r   X, r

Allowed substitution hints:   C( r)   D( r)   R( r)   G( r)

Proof of Theorem cubic

Step	Hyp	Ref	Expression
1		cubic.a	. . 3 |- ( ph -> A e. CC )
2		cubic.z	. . 3 |- ( ph -> A =/= 0 )
3		cubic.b	. . 3 |- ( ph -> B e. CC )
4		cubic.c	. . 3 |- ( ph -> C e. CC )
5		cubic.d	. . 3 |- ( ph -> D e. CC )
6		cubic.x	. . 3 |- ( ph -> X e. CC )
7		cubic.t	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> T = ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) )
8		cubic.n	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> N = ( ( ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) - ( ( 9 x. A ) x. ( B x. C ) ) ) + (; 2 7 x. ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) ) ) )
9		2cn 10702	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- 2 e. CC
10		3nn0 10911	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- 3 e. NN0
11		expcl 12328	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- ( ( B e. CC /\ 3 e. NN0 ) -> ( B ^ 3 ) e. CC )
12	3, 10, 11	sylancl 675	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ph -> ( B ^ 3 ) e. CC )
13		mulcl 9641	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ( 2 e. CC /\ ( B ^ 3 ) e. CC ) -> ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) e. CC )
14	9, 12, 13	sylancr 676	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) e. CC )
15		9cn 10719	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- 9 e. CC
16		mulcl 9641	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- ( ( 9 e. CC /\ A e. CC ) -> ( 9 x. A ) e. CC )
17	15, 1, 16	sylancr 676	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ph -> ( 9 x. A ) e. CC )
18	3, 4	mulcld 9681	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ph -> ( B x. C ) e. CC )
19	17, 18	mulcld 9681	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> ( ( 9 x. A ) x. ( B x. C ) ) e. CC )
20	14, 19	subcld 10005	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) - ( ( 9 x. A ) x. ( B x. C ) ) ) e. CC )
21		2nn0 10910	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- 2 e. NN0
22		7nn 10795	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- 7 e. NN
23	21, 22	decnncl 11087	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ; 2 7 e. NN
24	23	nncni 10641	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ; 2 7 e. CC
25	1	sqcld 12452	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ph -> ( A ^ 2 ) e. CC )
26	25, 5	mulcld 9681	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) e. CC )
27		mulcl 9641	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( (; 2 7 e. CC /\ ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) e. CC ) -> (; 2 7 x. ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) ) e. CC )
28	24, 26, 27	sylancr 676	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> (; 2 7 x. ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) ) e. CC )
29	20, 28	addcld 9680	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( 2 x. ( B ^ 3 ) ) - ( ( 9 x. A ) x. ( B x. C ) ) ) + (; 2 7 x. ( ( A ^ 2 ) x. D ) ) ) e. CC )
30	8, 29	eqeltrd 2549	. . . . . . 7 |- ( ph -> N e. CC )
31		cubic.g	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> G = ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) )
32	30	sqcld 12452	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> ( N ^ 2 ) e. CC )
33		4cn 10709	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- 4 e. CC
34		cubic.m	. . . . . . . . . . . . 13 |- ( ph -> M = ( ( B ^ 2 ) - ( 3 x. ( A x. C ) ) ) )
35	3	sqcld 12452	. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 |- ( ph -> ( B ^ 2 ) e. CC )
36		3cn 10706	. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 |- 3 e. CC
37	1, 4	mulcld 9681	. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 |- ( ph -> ( A x. C ) e. CC )
38		mulcl 9641	. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 |- ( ( 3 e. CC /\ ( A x. C ) e. CC ) -> ( 3 x. ( A x. C ) ) e. CC )
39	36, 37, 38	sylancr 676	. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 |- ( ph -> ( 3 x. ( A x. C ) ) e. CC )
40	35, 39	subcld 10005	. . . . . . . . . . . . 13 |- ( ph -> ( ( B ^ 2 ) - ( 3 x. ( A x. C ) ) ) e. CC )
41	34, 40	eqeltrd 2549	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- ( ph -> M e. CC )
42		expcl 12328	. . . . . . . . . . . 12 |- ( ( M e. CC /\ 3 e. NN0 ) -> ( M ^ 3 ) e. CC )
43	41, 10, 42	sylancl 675	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ph -> ( M ^ 3 ) e. CC )
44		mulcl 9641	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- ( ( 4 e. CC /\ ( M ^ 3 ) e. CC ) -> ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) e. CC )
45	33, 43, 44	sylancr 676	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) e. CC )
46	32, 45	subcld 10005	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) e. CC )
47	31, 46	eqeltrd 2549	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> G e. CC )
48	47	sqrtcld 13576	. . . . . . 7 |- ( ph -> ( sqr ` G ) e. CC )
49	30, 48	addcld 9680	. . . . . 6 |- ( ph -> ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) e. CC )
50	49	halfcld 10880	. . . . 5 |- ( ph -> ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) e. CC )
51		3ne0 10726	. . . . . 6 |- 3 =/= 0
52	36, 51	reccli 10359	. . . . 5 |- ( 1 / 3 ) e. CC
53		cxpcl 23698	. . . . 5 |- ( ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) e. CC /\ ( 1 / 3 ) e. CC ) -> ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) e. CC )
54	50, 52, 53	sylancl 675	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) e. CC )
55	7, 54	eqeltrd 2549	. . 3 |- ( ph -> T e. CC )
56	7	oveq1d 6323	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> ( T ^ 3 ) = ( ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) ^ 3 ) )
57		3nn 10791	. . . . 5 |- 3 e. NN
58		cxproot 23714	. . . . 5 |- ( ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) e. CC /\ 3 e. NN ) -> ( ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) ^ 3 ) = ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) )
59	50, 57, 58	sylancl 675	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) ^ 3 ) = ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) )
60	56, 59	eqtrd 2505	. . 3 |- ( ph -> ( T ^ 3 ) = ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) )
61	47	sqsqrtd 13578	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> ( ( sqr ` G ) ^ 2 ) = G )
62	61, 31	eqtrd 2505	. . 3 |- ( ph -> ( ( sqr ` G ) ^ 2 ) = ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) )
63	9	a1i 11	. . . . . 6 |- ( ph -> 2 e. CC )
64	33	a1i 11	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> 4 e. CC )
65		4ne0 10728	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- 4 =/= 0
66	65	a1i 11	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> 4 =/= 0 )
67		cubic.0	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> M =/= 0 )
68		3z 10994	. . . . . . . . . . 11 |- 3 e. ZZ
69	68	a1i 11	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ph -> 3 e. ZZ )
70	41, 67, 69	expne0d 12460	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( M ^ 3 ) =/= 0 )
71	64, 43, 66, 70	mulne0d 10286	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) =/= 0 )
72	62	oveq2d 6324	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( ( sqr ` G ) ^ 2 ) ) = ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) ) )
73		subsq 12420	. . . . . . . . . 10 |- ( ( N e. CC /\ ( sqr ` G ) e. CC ) -> ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( ( sqr ` G ) ^ 2 ) ) = ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) )
74	30, 48, 73	syl2anc 673	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( ( sqr ` G ) ^ 2 ) ) = ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) )
75	32, 45	nncand 10010	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( ( N ^ 2 ) - ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) ) ) = ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) )
76	72, 74, 75	3eqtr3d 2513	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) = ( 4 x. ( M ^ 3 ) ) )
77	30, 48	subcld 10005	. . . . . . . . 9 |- ( ph -> ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) e. CC )
78	77	mul02d 9849	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ph -> ( 0 x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) = 0 )
79	71, 76, 78	3netr4d 2720	. . . . . . 7 |- ( ph -> ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) =/= ( 0 x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) )
80		oveq1 6315	. . . . . . . 8 |- ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) = 0 -> ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) = ( 0 x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) )
81	80	necon3i 2675	. . . . . . 7 |- ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) =/= ( 0 x. ( N - ( sqr ` G ) ) ) -> ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) =/= 0 )
82	79, 81	syl 17	. . . . . 6 |- ( ph -> ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) =/= 0 )
83		2ne0 10724	. . . . . . 7 |- 2 =/= 0
84	83	a1i 11	. . . . . 6 |- ( ph -> 2 =/= 0 )
85	49, 63, 82, 84	divne0d 10421	. . . . 5 |- ( ph -> ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) =/= 0 )
86	52	a1i 11	. . . . 5 |- ( ph -> ( 1 / 3 ) e. CC )
87	50, 85, 86	cxpne0d 23737	. . . 4 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( N + ( sqr ` G ) ) / 2 ) ^c ( 1 / 3 ) ) =/= 0 )
88	7, 87	eqnetrd 2710	. . 3 |- ( ph -> T =/= 0 )
89	1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 55, 60, 48, 62, 34, 8, 88	cubic2 23853	. 2 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( ( A x. ( X ^ 3 ) ) + ( B x. ( X ^ 2 ) ) ) + ( ( C x. X ) + D ) ) = 0 <-> E. r e. CC ( ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) ) )
90		cubic.r	. . . . . 6 |- R = { 1 , ( ( -u 1 + ( _i x. ( sqr ` 3 ) ) ) / 2 ) , ( ( -u 1 - ( _i x. ( sqr ` 3 ) ) ) / 2 ) }
91	90	1cubr 23847	. . . . 5 |- ( r e. R <-> ( r e. CC /\ ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 ) )
92	91	anbi1i 709	. . . 4 |- ( ( r e. R /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) <-> ( ( r e. CC /\ ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 ) /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) )
93		anass 661	. . . 4 |- ( ( ( r e. CC /\ ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 ) /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) <-> ( r e. CC /\ ( ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) ) )
94	92, 93	bitri 257	. . 3 |- ( ( r e. R /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) <-> ( r e. CC /\ ( ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) ) )
95	94	rexbii2 2879	. 2 |- ( E. r e. R X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) <-> E. r e. CC ( ( r ^ 3 ) = 1 /\ X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) )
96	89, 95	syl6bbr 271	1 |- ( ph -> ( ( ( ( A x. ( X ^ 3 ) ) + ( B x. ( X ^ 2 ) ) ) + ( ( C x. X ) + D ) ) = 0 <-> E. r e. R X = -u ( ( ( B + ( r x. T ) ) + ( M / ( r x. T ) ) ) / ( 3 x. A ) ) ) )

Syntax hints:   -> wi 4   <-> wb 189   /\ wa 376   = wceq 1452   e. wcel 1904   =/= wne 2641   E.wrex 2757   {ctp 3963   ` cfv 5589  (class class class)co 6308   CCcc 9555   0cc0 9557   1c1 9558   _ici 9559   + caddc 9560   x. cmul 9562   - cmin 9880   -ucneg 9881   / cdiv 10291   NNcn 10631   2c2 10681   3c3 10682   4c4 10683   7c7 10686   9c9 10688   NN0cn0 10893   ZZcz 10961  ;cdc 11074   ^cexp 12310   sqrcsqrt 13373   ^c ccxp 23584

This theorem was proved from axioms:  ax-mp 5  ax-1 6  ax-2 7  ax-3 8  ax-gen 1677  ax-4 1690  ax-5 1766  ax-6 1813  ax-7 1859  ax-8 1906  ax-9 1913  ax-10 1932  ax-11 1937  ax-12 1950  ax-13 2104  ax-ext 2451  ax-rep 4508  ax-sep 4518  ax-nul 4527  ax-pow 4579  ax-pr 4639  ax-un 6602  ax-inf2 8164  ax-cnex 9613  ax-resscn 9614  ax-1cn 9615  ax-icn 9616  ax-addcl 9617  ax-addrcl 9618  ax-mulcl 9619  ax-mulrcl 9620  ax-mulcom 9621  ax-addass 9622  ax-mulass 9623  ax-distr 9624  ax-i2m1 9625  ax-1ne0 9626  ax-1rid 9627  ax-rnegex 9628  ax-rrecex 9629  ax-cnre 9630  ax-pre-lttri 9631  ax-pre-lttrn 9632  ax-pre-ltadd 9633  ax-pre-mulgt0 9634  ax-pre-sup 9635  ax-addf 9636  ax-mulf 9637

This theorem depends on definitions:  df-bi 190  df-or 377  df-an 378  df-3or 1008  df-3an 1009  df-tru 1455  df-fal 1458  df-ex 1672  df-nf 1676  df-sb 1806  df-eu 2323  df-mo 2324  df-clab 2458  df-cleq 2464  df-clel 2467  df-nfc 2601  df-ne 2643  df-nel 2644  df-ral 2761  df-rex 2762  df-reu 2763  df-rmo 2764  df-rab 2765  df-v 3033  df-sbc 3256  df-csb 3350  df-dif 3393  df-un 3395  df-in 3397  df-ss 3404  df-pss 3406  df-nul 3723  df-if 3873  df-pw 3944  df-sn 3960  df-pr 3962  df-tp 3964  df-op 3966  df-uni 4191  df-int 4227  df-iun 4271  df-iin 4272  df-br 4396  df-opab 4455  df-mpt 4456  df-tr 4491  df-eprel 4750  df-id 4754  df-po 4760  df-so 4761  df-fr 4798  df-se 4799  df-we 4800  df-xp 4845  df-rel 4846  df-cnv 4847  df-co 4848  df-dm 4849  df-rn 4850  df-res 4851  df-ima 4852  df-pred 5387  df-ord 5433  df-on 5434  df-lim 5435  df-suc 5436  df-iota 5553  df-fun 5591  df-fn 5592  df-f 5593  df-f1 5594  df-fo 5595  df-f1o 5596  df-fv 5597  df-isom 5598  df-riota 6270  df-ov 6311  df-oprab 6312  df-mpt2 6313  df-of 6550  df-om 6712  df-1st 6812  df-2nd 6813  df-supp 6934  df-wrecs 7046  df-recs 7108  df-rdg 7146  df-1o 7200  df-2o 7201  df-oadd 7204  df-er 7381  df-map 7492  df-pm 7493  df-ixp 7541  df-en 7588  df-dom 7589  df-sdom 7590  df-fin 7591  df-fsupp 7902  df-fi 7943  df-sup 7974  df-inf 7975  df-oi 8043  df-card 8391  df-cda 8616  df-pnf 9695  df-mnf 9696  df-xr 9697  df-ltxr 9698  df-le 9699  df-sub 9882  df-neg 9883  df-div 10292  df-nn 10632  df-2 10690  df-3 10691  df-4 10692  df-5 10693  df-6 10694  df-7 10695  df-8 10696  df-9 10697  df-10 10698  df-n0 10894  df-z 10962  df-dec 11075  df-uz 11183  df-q 11288  df-rp 11326  df-xneg 11432  df-xadd 11433  df-xmul 11434  df-ioo 11664  df-ioc 11665  df-ico 11666  df-icc 11667  df-fz 11811  df-fzo 11943  df-fl 12061  df-mod 12130  df-seq 12252  df-exp 12311  df-fac 12498  df-bc 12526  df-hash 12554  df-shft 13207  df-cj 13239  df-re 13240  df-im 13241  df-sqrt 13375  df-abs 13376  df-limsup 13603  df-clim 13629  df-rlim 13630  df-sum 13830  df-ef 14198  df-sin 14200  df-cos 14201  df-pi 14203  df-dvds 14383  df-struct 15201  df-ndx 15202  df-slot 15203  df-base 15204  df-sets 15205  df-ress 15206  df-plusg 15281  df-mulr 15282  df-starv 15283  df-sca 15284  df-vsca 15285  df-ip 15286  df-tset 15287  df-ple 15288  df-ds 15290  df-unif 15291  df-hom 15292  df-cco 15293  df-rest 15399  df-topn 15400  df-0g 15418  df-gsum 15419  df-topgen 15420  df-pt 15421  df-prds 15424  df-xrs 15478  df-qtop 15484  df-imas 15485  df-xps 15488  df-mre 15570  df-mrc 15571  df-acs 15573  df-mgm 16566  df-sgrp 16605  df-mnd 16615  df-submnd 16661  df-mulg 16754  df-cntz 17049  df-cmn 17510  df-psmet 19039  df-xmet 19040  df-met 19041  df-bl 19042  df-mopn 19043  df-fbas 19044  df-fg 19045  df-cnfld 19048  df-top 19998  df-bases 19999  df-topon 20000  df-topsp 20001  df-cld 20111  df-ntr 20112  df-cls 20113  df-nei 20191  df-lp 20229  df-perf 20230  df-cn 20320  df-cnp 20321  df-haus 20408  df-tx 20654  df-hmeo 20847  df-fil 20939  df-fm 21031  df-flim 21032  df-flf 21033  df-xms 21413  df-ms 21414  df-tms 21415  df-cncf 21988  df-limc 22900  df-dv 22901  df-log 23585  df-cxp 23586

This theorem is referenced by: (None)